For the divorce-outcome research, which reason is given for why the association may be correlational rather than causal?

• A. Many children of divorced parents live with mothers who earn less money
• B. Children have often witnessed parents' conflicts before the divorce
• C. Some families are more prone to divorcing than others
• D. All of the above

Answer: (D)

In divorce-outcome research, observed links between divorce and children’s outcomes can be driven by confounding factors rather than a direct causal effect of the divorce itself. Economic strain that follows divorce, such as mothers earning less money, can affect child well-being independent of the divorce event, creating a correlation that isn’t caused by the divorce alone. Children may also be exposed to parental conflict before the breakup, and this predivorce tension can influence their development just as much as the divorce, if not more. Additionally, some families are inherently more prone to divorcing due to stable traits or overall family dynamics, and these same factors can shape child outcomes, producing a spurious association. Taken together, these multiple pathways illustrate why the relationship may be correlational rather than causal.